Education in India
Education in India is provided by the public sector as well as the private sector, with control and funding coming from three levels: central, state, and local. Takshasila was the earliest recorded centre of higher learning in India from at least 5th century BCE and it is debatable whether it could be regarded a university or not. The Nalanda University was the oldest university-system of education in the world in the modern sense of university.[2] Western education became ingrained into Indian society with the establishment of the British Raj.
Education in India falls under the control of both the Union Government and the State Governments, with some responsibilities lying with the Union and the states having autonomy for others. The various articles of the Indian Constitution provide for education as a fundamental right. Most universities in India are controlled by the Union or the State Government.
India has made progress in terms of increasing the primary education attendance rate and expanding literacy to approximately three quarters of the population.[3] India's improved education system is often cited as one of the main contributors to the economic rise of India.[4] Much of the progress, especially in higher education and scientific research, has been credited to various public institutions. The private education market in India is merely 5%[citation needed] although in terms of value was estimated to be worth US$40 billion in 2008 and had increased to US$68–70 billion by 2012.[5]
However, there are still many issues for India to overcome. Despite the growing investment in education, 25% of its population is still illiterate; only 15% of Indian students reach high school, and just 7% graduate.[dubious – discuss][6] The quality of education whether at primary or higher education is significantly poor as compared with major developing nations. As of 2008, India's post-secondary institutions offer only enough seats for 7% of India's college-age population, 25% of teaching positions nationwide are vacant, and 57% of college professors lack either a master's or PhD degree.[7]
As of 2011, there are 1522 degree-granting engineering colleges in India with an annual student intake of 582,000,[8] plus 1,244 polytechnics with an annual intake of 265,000. However, these institutions face shortage of faculty and concerns have been raised over the quality of education.[9] In India education system, a significant number of seats are reserved under affirmative action policies for the historically disadvantaged Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes. In universities/Colleges/Institutions affiliated to federal government there is minimum 50% of reservations applicable to these disadvantaged groups. At state level it varies. State of Andhra Pradesh has minimum 83.33% of reservations as on 2012, which is highest percentage of reservations in India.
History
The University of Mumbai, established 1857, is one of the three oldest modern state universities in India.
Brahmin gurus imparted education by means of donations and not through charging fees or funds from the students or their guardians. Later, temples were also centrees of education. Religiouis education was compulsory but secular subjects were also taught. Students were required to be brahmacharis or celibates. The knowledge in these orders was often related to the tasks a section of the society had to perform. The priest class, the Brahmins, were imparted knowledge of religion, philosophy, and other ancillary branches while the warrior class, the Kshatriya, were trained in the various aspects of warfare. The business class, the Vaishya, were taught their trade and the working class of the Shudras was generally deprived of educational advantages. The book of laws, the Manusmriti, and the treatise on statecraft the Arthashastra were among the influential works of this era which reflect the outlook and understanding of the world at the time.
Secular institutions cropped up along with Hindu temples, mutts and Buddhist monasteries. These institutions imparted practical education, e.g. medicine. A number of urban learning centres became increasingly visible from the period between 500 BCE to 400 CE.The important urban centres of learning were Taxila (in modern day Pakistan) and Nalanda in Bihar, among others. These institutions systematically imparted knowledge and attracted a number of foreign students to study topics such as Vedic and Buddhist literature, logic, grammar, etc. Chanakya, a Brahmin teacher, was among the most famous teachers of Takshasila, associated with founding of Mauryan Empire.
Overview
Children lining up for school in Kochi.
India's education system is divided into different levels such as pre-primary level, primary level, elementary education, secondary education, undergraduate level and postgraduate level.[10] The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) is the apex body for curriculum related matters for school education in India.[11] The NCERT provides support and technical assistance to a number of schools in India and oversees many aspects of enforcement of education policies.[12] In India, the various curriculum bodies governing school education system are:
The state government boards, in which the majority of Indian children are enrolled.
The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE). CBSE conducts two examinations, namely, the All India Secondary School Examination, AISSE (Class/Grade 10) and the All India Senior School Certificate Examination, AISSCE (Class/Grade 12).
The Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE). CISCE conducts three examinations, namely, the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE - Class/ Grade 10); The Indian School Certificate (ISC - Class/ Grade 12) and the Certificate in Vocational Education (CVE - Class/Grade 12).
The National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) conducts two examinations, namely, Secondary Examination and Senior Secondary Examination (All India) and also some courses in Vocational Education.
International schools affiliated to the International Baccalaureate Programme and/or the Cambridge International Examinations.
Islamic Madrasah schools, whose boards are controlled by local state governments, or autonomous, or affiliated with Darul Uloom Deoband.
Autonomous schools like Woodstock School, The Sri Aurobindo International Centre of Education Puducherry, Auroville, Patha Bhavan and Ananda Marga Gurukula.
In addition, NUEPA (National University of Educational Planning and Administration)[13] and NCTE (National Council for Teacher Education) are responsible for the management of the education system and teacher accreditation.[14]
10+2+3 pattern
The central and most state boards uniformly follows the "10+2+3" pattern of education.[15]:3 In this pattern, 10 years of primary and secondary education is followed by 2 years of higher secondary (usually in schools having the higher secondary facility, or in colleges),[15]:44 and then 3 years of college education for bachelor's degree.[16] The 10 years is further divided into 5 years of primary education and 3 years of upper primary, followed by 2 years of high school.[15]:5 This pattern originated from the recommendation the Education Commission of 1964–66.[17]
Primary education system in India
The Indian government lays emphasis on primary education up to the age of fourteen years, referred to as elementary education in India.[18] The Indian government has also banned child labour in order to ensure that the children do not enter unsafe working conditions.[18] However, both free education and the ban on child labour are difficult to enforce due to economic disparity and social conditions.[18] 80% of all recognized schools at the elementary stage are government run or supported, making it the largest provider of education in the country.[19]
School children, Mumbai
However, due to a shortage of resources and lack of political will, this system suffers from massive gaps including high pupil to teacher ratios, shortage of infrastructure and poor levels of teacher training. Figures released by the Indian government in 2011 show that there were 5,816,673 elementary school teachers in India.[20] As of March 2012 there were 2,127,000 secondary school teachers in India.[21] Education has also been made free[18] for children for 6 to 14 years of age or up to class VIII under the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act 2009.[22]
There have been several efforts to enhance quality made by the government. The District Education Revitalization Programme (DERP) was launched in 1994 with an aim to universalize primary education in India by reforming and vitalizing the existing primary education system.[23] 85% of the DERP was funded by the central government and the remaining 15 percent was funded by the states.[23] The DERP, which had opened 160000 new schools including 84000 alternative education schools delivering alternative education to approximately 3.5 million children, was also supported by UNICEF and other international programmes.[23]
This primary education scheme has also shown a high Gross Enrollment Ratio of 93–95% for the last three years in some states.[23] Significant improvement in staffing and enrollment of girls has also been made as a part of this scheme.[23] The current scheme for universalization of Education for All is the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan which is one of the largest education initiatives in the world. Enrollment has been enhanced, but the levels of quality remain low.
Private education
Dhirubhai Ambani School, Mumbai
School wall of a Private School in India.
In India and Sri Lanka, due to the British influence, a public school implies a non-governmental, historically elite educational institution, often modelled on British public schools which are in certain cases governmental. The most well known public school in Sri Lanka is Royal College Colombo. Although it is a governmental school it has much autonomy. S. Thomas' College located in Mount Lavinia and its branches are located in Kollupitiya, Gurutalawa, Bandarawella and Trinity College, Kandy are the most prominent private schools in the island. Apart from this Ladies' College, Colombo; Bishop's College, Colombo and Hillwood College, Kandy are the well known private school for ladies.
There are privately owned and managed schools, many of whom have the appellation "Public" attached to them, e.g. the Delhi Public Schools, National Public Schools or Frank Anthony Public Schools. Most middle-class families send their children to such schools, which might be in their own city or distant boarding school such as Rajkumar College, Rajkot, the oldest public school in India. The medium of education is English, but Hindi and/or the state's official language is also taught as a compulsory subject. Preschool education is mostly limited to organised neighbourhood nursery schools with some organised chains.
According to current estimates, 80% of all schools are government schools[19] making the government the major provider of education. However, because of poor quality of public education, 27% of Indian children are privately educated.[24] With more than 50% children enrolling in private schools in urban areas, the balance has already tilted towards private schooling in cities; even in rural areas, nearly 20% of the children in 2004-5 were enrolled in private schools.[25] According to some research, private schools often provide superior results at a multiple of the unit cost of government schools.[26][27][28] However, others have suggested that private schools fail to provide education to the poorest families, a selective being only a fifth of the schools and have in the past ignored Court orders for their regulation[citation needed].
In their favour, it has been pointed out that private schools cover the entire curriculum and offer extra-curricular activities such as science fairs, general knowledge, sports, music and drama.[24] The pupil teacher ratios are much better in private schools (1:31 to 1:37 for government schools and more teachers in private schools are female[citation needed]. There is some disgreement over which system has better educated teachers. According to the latest DISE survey, the percentage of untrained teachers (paratechers) is 54.91% in private, compared to 44.88% in government schools and only 2.32% teachers in unaided schools receive inservice training compared to 43.44% for government schools. The competition in the school market is intense, yet most schools make profit.[24] However, the number of private schools in India is still low - the share of private institutions is 7% (with upper primary being 21% and secondary 32% - source : fortress team research).
Even the poorest often go to private schools despite the fact that government schools are free. A study found that 65% of schoolchildren in Hyderabad's slums attend private schools.[28]
Homeschooling
Homeschooling is legal in India, though it is the less explored option. The Indian Government's stance on the issue is that parents are free to teach their children at home, if they wish to and have the means. HRD Minister Kapil Sibal has stated that despite the RTE Act of 2009, if someone decides not to send his/her children to school, the government would not interfere.[29]
Secondary education
Older students
The National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986, has provided for environment awareness, science and technology education, and introduction of traditional elements such as Yoga into the Indian secondary school system.[30] Secondary education covers children 14–18 which covers 88.5 million children according to the Census, 2001. However, enrolment figures show that only 31 million of these children were attending schools in 2001–02, which means that two-third of the population remained out of school.[31]
A significant feature of India's secondary school system is the emphasis on inclusion of the disadvantaged sections of the society. Professionals from established institutes are often called to support in vocational training. Another feature of India's secondary school system is its emphasis on profession based vocational training to help students attain skills for finding a vocation of his/her choosing.[32] A significant new feature has been the extension of SSA to secondary education in the form of the Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan[33]
A special Integrated Education for Disabled Children (IEDC) programme was started in 1974 with a focus on primary education.[11] but which was converted into Inclusive Education at Secondary Stage[34] Another notable special programme, the Kendriya Vidyalaya project, was started for the employees of the central government of India, who are distributed throughout the country. The government started the Kendriya Vidyalaya project in 1965 to provide uniform education in institutions following the same syllabus at the same pace regardless of the location to which the employee's family has been transferred.[11]
A multilingual web portal on Primary Education is available with rich multimedia content for children and forums to dindg.in (2010-09-10). Retrieved on 2011-03-21.</ref> is a nationwide initiative that seeks to facilitate rural empowerment through provision of responsive information, products and services in local languages.
Education in India falls under the control of both the Union Government and the State Governments, with some responsibilities lying with the Union and the states having autonomy for others. The various articles of the Indian Constitution provide for education as a fundamental right. Most universities in India are controlled by the Union or the State Government.
India has made progress in terms of increasing the primary education attendance rate and expanding literacy to approximately three quarters of the population.[3] India's improved education system is often cited as one of the main contributors to the economic rise of India.[4] Much of the progress, especially in higher education and scientific research, has been credited to various public institutions. The private education market in India is merely 5%[citation needed] although in terms of value was estimated to be worth US$40 billion in 2008 and had increased to US$68–70 billion by 2012.[5]
However, there are still many issues for India to overcome. Despite the growing investment in education, 25% of its population is still illiterate; only 15% of Indian students reach high school, and just 7% graduate.[dubious – discuss][6] The quality of education whether at primary or higher education is significantly poor as compared with major developing nations. As of 2008, India's post-secondary institutions offer only enough seats for 7% of India's college-age population, 25% of teaching positions nationwide are vacant, and 57% of college professors lack either a master's or PhD degree.[7]
As of 2011, there are 1522 degree-granting engineering colleges in India with an annual student intake of 582,000,[8] plus 1,244 polytechnics with an annual intake of 265,000. However, these institutions face shortage of faculty and concerns have been raised over the quality of education.[9] In India education system, a significant number of seats are reserved under affirmative action policies for the historically disadvantaged Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes. In universities/Colleges/Institutions affiliated to federal government there is minimum 50% of reservations applicable to these disadvantaged groups. At state level it varies. State of Andhra Pradesh has minimum 83.33% of reservations as on 2012, which is highest percentage of reservations in India.
History
The University of Mumbai, established 1857, is one of the three oldest modern state universities in India.
Brahmin gurus imparted education by means of donations and not through charging fees or funds from the students or their guardians. Later, temples were also centrees of education. Religiouis education was compulsory but secular subjects were also taught. Students were required to be brahmacharis or celibates. The knowledge in these orders was often related to the tasks a section of the society had to perform. The priest class, the Brahmins, were imparted knowledge of religion, philosophy, and other ancillary branches while the warrior class, the Kshatriya, were trained in the various aspects of warfare. The business class, the Vaishya, were taught their trade and the working class of the Shudras was generally deprived of educational advantages. The book of laws, the Manusmriti, and the treatise on statecraft the Arthashastra were among the influential works of this era which reflect the outlook and understanding of the world at the time.
Secular institutions cropped up along with Hindu temples, mutts and Buddhist monasteries. These institutions imparted practical education, e.g. medicine. A number of urban learning centres became increasingly visible from the period between 500 BCE to 400 CE.The important urban centres of learning were Taxila (in modern day Pakistan) and Nalanda in Bihar, among others. These institutions systematically imparted knowledge and attracted a number of foreign students to study topics such as Vedic and Buddhist literature, logic, grammar, etc. Chanakya, a Brahmin teacher, was among the most famous teachers of Takshasila, associated with founding of Mauryan Empire.
Overview
Children lining up for school in Kochi.
India's education system is divided into different levels such as pre-primary level, primary level, elementary education, secondary education, undergraduate level and postgraduate level.[10] The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) is the apex body for curriculum related matters for school education in India.[11] The NCERT provides support and technical assistance to a number of schools in India and oversees many aspects of enforcement of education policies.[12] In India, the various curriculum bodies governing school education system are:
The state government boards, in which the majority of Indian children are enrolled.
The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE). CBSE conducts two examinations, namely, the All India Secondary School Examination, AISSE (Class/Grade 10) and the All India Senior School Certificate Examination, AISSCE (Class/Grade 12).
The Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE). CISCE conducts three examinations, namely, the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE - Class/ Grade 10); The Indian School Certificate (ISC - Class/ Grade 12) and the Certificate in Vocational Education (CVE - Class/Grade 12).
The National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) conducts two examinations, namely, Secondary Examination and Senior Secondary Examination (All India) and also some courses in Vocational Education.
International schools affiliated to the International Baccalaureate Programme and/or the Cambridge International Examinations.
Islamic Madrasah schools, whose boards are controlled by local state governments, or autonomous, or affiliated with Darul Uloom Deoband.
Autonomous schools like Woodstock School, The Sri Aurobindo International Centre of Education Puducherry, Auroville, Patha Bhavan and Ananda Marga Gurukula.
In addition, NUEPA (National University of Educational Planning and Administration)[13] and NCTE (National Council for Teacher Education) are responsible for the management of the education system and teacher accreditation.[14]
10+2+3 pattern
The central and most state boards uniformly follows the "10+2+3" pattern of education.[15]:3 In this pattern, 10 years of primary and secondary education is followed by 2 years of higher secondary (usually in schools having the higher secondary facility, or in colleges),[15]:44 and then 3 years of college education for bachelor's degree.[16] The 10 years is further divided into 5 years of primary education and 3 years of upper primary, followed by 2 years of high school.[15]:5 This pattern originated from the recommendation the Education Commission of 1964–66.[17]
Primary education system in India
The Indian government lays emphasis on primary education up to the age of fourteen years, referred to as elementary education in India.[18] The Indian government has also banned child labour in order to ensure that the children do not enter unsafe working conditions.[18] However, both free education and the ban on child labour are difficult to enforce due to economic disparity and social conditions.[18] 80% of all recognized schools at the elementary stage are government run or supported, making it the largest provider of education in the country.[19]
School children, Mumbai
However, due to a shortage of resources and lack of political will, this system suffers from massive gaps including high pupil to teacher ratios, shortage of infrastructure and poor levels of teacher training. Figures released by the Indian government in 2011 show that there were 5,816,673 elementary school teachers in India.[20] As of March 2012 there were 2,127,000 secondary school teachers in India.[21] Education has also been made free[18] for children for 6 to 14 years of age or up to class VIII under the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act 2009.[22]
There have been several efforts to enhance quality made by the government. The District Education Revitalization Programme (DERP) was launched in 1994 with an aim to universalize primary education in India by reforming and vitalizing the existing primary education system.[23] 85% of the DERP was funded by the central government and the remaining 15 percent was funded by the states.[23] The DERP, which had opened 160000 new schools including 84000 alternative education schools delivering alternative education to approximately 3.5 million children, was also supported by UNICEF and other international programmes.[23]
This primary education scheme has also shown a high Gross Enrollment Ratio of 93–95% for the last three years in some states.[23] Significant improvement in staffing and enrollment of girls has also been made as a part of this scheme.[23] The current scheme for universalization of Education for All is the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan which is one of the largest education initiatives in the world. Enrollment has been enhanced, but the levels of quality remain low.
Private education
Dhirubhai Ambani School, Mumbai
School wall of a Private School in India.
In India and Sri Lanka, due to the British influence, a public school implies a non-governmental, historically elite educational institution, often modelled on British public schools which are in certain cases governmental. The most well known public school in Sri Lanka is Royal College Colombo. Although it is a governmental school it has much autonomy. S. Thomas' College located in Mount Lavinia and its branches are located in Kollupitiya, Gurutalawa, Bandarawella and Trinity College, Kandy are the most prominent private schools in the island. Apart from this Ladies' College, Colombo; Bishop's College, Colombo and Hillwood College, Kandy are the well known private school for ladies.
There are privately owned and managed schools, many of whom have the appellation "Public" attached to them, e.g. the Delhi Public Schools, National Public Schools or Frank Anthony Public Schools. Most middle-class families send their children to such schools, which might be in their own city or distant boarding school such as Rajkumar College, Rajkot, the oldest public school in India. The medium of education is English, but Hindi and/or the state's official language is also taught as a compulsory subject. Preschool education is mostly limited to organised neighbourhood nursery schools with some organised chains.
According to current estimates, 80% of all schools are government schools[19] making the government the major provider of education. However, because of poor quality of public education, 27% of Indian children are privately educated.[24] With more than 50% children enrolling in private schools in urban areas, the balance has already tilted towards private schooling in cities; even in rural areas, nearly 20% of the children in 2004-5 were enrolled in private schools.[25] According to some research, private schools often provide superior results at a multiple of the unit cost of government schools.[26][27][28] However, others have suggested that private schools fail to provide education to the poorest families, a selective being only a fifth of the schools and have in the past ignored Court orders for their regulation[citation needed].
In their favour, it has been pointed out that private schools cover the entire curriculum and offer extra-curricular activities such as science fairs, general knowledge, sports, music and drama.[24] The pupil teacher ratios are much better in private schools (1:31 to 1:37 for government schools and more teachers in private schools are female[citation needed]. There is some disgreement over which system has better educated teachers. According to the latest DISE survey, the percentage of untrained teachers (paratechers) is 54.91% in private, compared to 44.88% in government schools and only 2.32% teachers in unaided schools receive inservice training compared to 43.44% for government schools. The competition in the school market is intense, yet most schools make profit.[24] However, the number of private schools in India is still low - the share of private institutions is 7% (with upper primary being 21% and secondary 32% - source : fortress team research).
Even the poorest often go to private schools despite the fact that government schools are free. A study found that 65% of schoolchildren in Hyderabad's slums attend private schools.[28]
Homeschooling
Homeschooling is legal in India, though it is the less explored option. The Indian Government's stance on the issue is that parents are free to teach their children at home, if they wish to and have the means. HRD Minister Kapil Sibal has stated that despite the RTE Act of 2009, if someone decides not to send his/her children to school, the government would not interfere.[29]
Secondary education
Older students
The National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986, has provided for environment awareness, science and technology education, and introduction of traditional elements such as Yoga into the Indian secondary school system.[30] Secondary education covers children 14–18 which covers 88.5 million children according to the Census, 2001. However, enrolment figures show that only 31 million of these children were attending schools in 2001–02, which means that two-third of the population remained out of school.[31]
A significant feature of India's secondary school system is the emphasis on inclusion of the disadvantaged sections of the society. Professionals from established institutes are often called to support in vocational training. Another feature of India's secondary school system is its emphasis on profession based vocational training to help students attain skills for finding a vocation of his/her choosing.[32] A significant new feature has been the extension of SSA to secondary education in the form of the Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan[33]
A special Integrated Education for Disabled Children (IEDC) programme was started in 1974 with a focus on primary education.[11] but which was converted into Inclusive Education at Secondary Stage[34] Another notable special programme, the Kendriya Vidyalaya project, was started for the employees of the central government of India, who are distributed throughout the country. The government started the Kendriya Vidyalaya project in 1965 to provide uniform education in institutions following the same syllabus at the same pace regardless of the location to which the employee's family has been transferred.[11]
A multilingual web portal on Primary Education is available with rich multimedia content for children and forums to dindg.in (2010-09-10). Retrieved on 2011-03-21.</ref> is a nationwide initiative that seeks to facilitate rural empowerment through provision of responsive information, products and services in local languages.
